Wolkowitz, O. M., Reus, V. I., Roberts, E., Manfredi, F., Chan, T., Ormiston, S., Johnson, R., Canick, J., Brizendine, L., Weingartner, H. Antidepressant and cognition-enhancing effects of DHEA in major depression. Kawano, H., Yasue, H., Kitagawa, A., Hirai, N., Yoshida, T., Soejima, H., Miyamoto, S., Nakano, M., Ogawa, H. Dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation improves endothelial function and insulin sensitivity in men. Hartkamp, A., Geenen, R., Godaert, G. L., Bijl, M., Bijlsma, J. W., Derksen, R. H. The effect of dehydroepiandrosterone on lumbar spine bone mineral density in patients with quiescent systemic lupus erythematosus. Kenny, A. M., Boxer, R. S., Kleppinger, A., Brindisi, J., Feinn, R., Burleson, J. A. Dehydroepiandrosterone combined with exercise improves muscle strength and physical function in frail older women. Virkki, L. M., Porola, P., Forsblad-d'Elia, H., Valtysdottir, S., Solovieva, S. A., Konttinen, Y. T. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) substitution treatment for severe fatigue in DHEA-deficient patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. have been undertaken on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior, and feelings, and testosterone. Nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. On the other hand, elevated testosterone in men may increase their generosity, primarily to attract a potential mate.|Reiter WJ, Schatzl G, Mark I, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone in the treatment of erectile dysfunction in patients with different organic etiologies. Antioxidant activity of dioscorea and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in older humans. Improvement in mood and fatigue after dehydroepiandrosterone replacement in Addison's disease in a randomized, double blind trial.|Higher pre-natal testosterone indicated by a low digit ratio as well as adult testosterone levels increased risk of fouls or aggression among male players in a soccer game. The masculinization of the brain is not just mediated by testosterone levels at the adult stage, but also testosterone exposure in the womb. The same research found fathers (outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males. Higher testosterone levels in men reduce the risk of becoming or staying unemployed. If a father's testosterone levels decrease in response to hearing their baby cry, it is an indication of empathizing with the baby. For instance, fluctuation in testosterone levels when a child is in distress has been found to be indicative of fathering styles.|Testosterone levels play a major role in risk-taking during financial decisions. Men who produce more testosterone are more likely to engage in extramarital sex. Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship or married, and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce. However, the testosterone changes observed do not seem to be maintained as relationships develop over time. There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes. [testosterone order](https://pad.stuve.uni-ulm.de/s/v6_XhHfom) may prove to be an effective treatment in female sexual arousal disorders, and is available as a dermal patch.|Van Weering, H. G., Gutknecht, D. R., and Schats, R. Augmentation of ovarian response by dehydroepiandrosterone. Murialdo, G., Barreca, A., Nobili, F., Rollero, A., Timossi, G., Gianelli, M. V., Copello, F., Rodriguez, G., and Polleri, A. Relationships between cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate and insulin-like growth factor-I system in dementia. Sulcova, J., Hill, M., Hampl, R., Masek, Z., Novacek, A., Ceska, R., and Starka, L. Effects of transdermal application of DHEA on the levels of steroids, gonadotropins and lipids in men. Does dehydroepiandrosterone improve well-being? Lee, K. S., Oh, K. Y., and Kim, B. C. Effects of dehydroepiandrosterone on collagen and collagenase gene expression by skin fibroblasts in culture. Elekima, O. T., Mills, C. O., Ahmad, A., Skinner, G. R., Ramsden, D. B., Bown, J., Young, T. W., and Elias, E. Reduced hepatic content of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphotransferase in chronic liver diseases. Phase I study of dehydroepiandrosterone (EL-10) therapy in symptomatic HIV disease abstract. Shun YP, Shun LH, Feng YY, and et al. The effect of DHEA on body fat distribution and serum lipids in elderly overweight males. Influence of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on the thyroid hormone status of BHE/cdb rats. Young, J., Couzinet, B., Nahoul, K., Brailly, S., Chanson, P., Baulieu, E. E., and Schaison, G. Panhypopituitarism as a model to study the metabolism of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in humans. Uozumi, K., Uematsu, T., Otsuka, M., Nakano, S., Takatsuka, Y., Iwahashi, M., Hanada, S., and Arima, T. Serum dehydroepiandrosterone and DHEA-sulfate in patients with adult T- cell leukemia and human T-lymphotropic virus type I carriers. And Kahwash, Z. Sex-specific action of insulin to acutely increase the metabolic clearance rate of dehydroepiandrosterone in humans. Nestler, J. E., Beer, N. A., Jakubowicz, D. J., Colombo, C., and Beer, R. M. Effects of insulin reduction with benfluorex on serum dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate, and blood pressure in hypertensive middle-aged and elderly men. Romanutti, C., Bruttomesso, A. C., Castilla, V., Bisceglia, J. A., Galagovsky, L. R., and Wachsman, M. B. In vitro antiviral activity of dehydroepiandrosterone and its synthetic derivatives against vesicular stomatitis virus. Kodama, M., Oyama, A., and Takagi, H. Control of interstitial pneumonia by drip infusion of megadose vitamin C, dehydroepiandrosterone and cortisol. Kawano, H., Nagayoshi, Y., Soejima, H., Tanaka, Y., Yamabe, H., Kinoshita, Y., and Ogawa, H. Dehydroepiandrosterone levels vary according as heart failure condition in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Lee, M. S., Yang, J. W., Ko, Y. H., Han, C., Kim, S. H., Lee, M. S., Joe, S. H., and Jung, I. K. Effects of methylphenidate and bupropion on DHEA-S and cortisol plasma levels in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Olff, M., de Vries, G. J., Guzelcan, Y., Assies, J., and Gersons, B. P. Changes in cortisol and DHEA plasma levels after psychotherapy for PTSD. Stewart, [notes.medien.rwth-aachen.de](https://notes.medien.rwth-aachen.de/WgWssR6pSVq6NHH_eVs_4A/) P. M. Aging and fountain-of-youth hormones.. Gynecomastia produced by dehydroepiandrosterone excess.|And Mecocci, P. Decreased dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) concentrations in plasma of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Stanczyk, F. Z., Slater, C. C., Ramos, D. E., Azen, C., Cherala, G., Hakala, C., Abraham, G., and Roy, S. Pharmacokinetics of dehydroepiandrosterone and its metabolites after long-term oral dehydroepiandrosterone treatment in postmenopausal women. Barad, D., Brill, H., and Gleicher, N. Update on the use of dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation among women with diminished ovarian function. And Holloszy, J. O. DHEA enhances effects of weight training on muscle mass and strength in elderly women and men. Fukui, M., Kitagawa, Y., Nakamura, N., Kadono, M., Yoshida, M., Hirata, C., Wada, K., Hasegawa, G., and Yoshikawa, T. Serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate concentration and carotid atherosclerosis in men with type 2 diabetes. Dhatariya, K., Bigelow, M. L., and Nair, K. S. Effect of dehydroepiandrosterone replacement on insulin sensitivity and lipids in hypoadrenal women.|The 7-Keto group also lost a greater percentage of body fat compared to the placebo group—1.8% versus 0.57%. The subjects underwent testing for blood chemistry, body composition, blood pressure, and dietary analysis at baseline and at weeks four and eight. A study published in Current Therapeutic Research revealed just how effective 7-Keto is in inducing fat loss. Supplementation with 7-Keto has a dramatic effect on boosting levels of these thermogenic-enhancing enzymes.|Araneo, B. A., Shelby, J., Li, G. Z., Ku, W., and Daynes, R. A. Administration of dehydroepiandrosterone to burned mice preserves normal immunologic competence. De la, Torre B., Hedman, M., Nilsson, E., Olesen, O., and Thorner, A. Relationship between blood and joint tissue DHEAS levels in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Wisniewski, T. L., Hilton, C. W., Morse, E. V., and Svec, F. The relationship of serum DHEA-S and cortisol levels to measures of immune function in human immunodeficiency virus-related illness. Hautanen, A., Manttari, M., Manninen, V., Tenkanen, L., Huttunen, J. K., Frick, M. H., and Adlercreutz, H. Adrenal androgens and [buy testosterone cream](https://md.chaosdorf.de/s/yrC3Dz03sy) as coronary risk factors in the Helsinki Heart Study. Yang, J. Y., Schwartz, A., and Henderson, E. E. Inhibition of HIV-1 latency reactivation by dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and an analog of DHEA.} One study found that administering testosterone increased verbal aggression in some participants. One study proposed that natural selection may have caused men to be more sensitive to situations in which their status is challenged, and that testosterone is the key factor that causes these situations to spark into aggression. Testosterone may be a treatment for postmenopausal women as long as they are effectively estrogenized. There is no FDA-approved androgen preparation for the treatment of androgen insufficiency; however, it has been used as an off-label use to treat low libido and sexual dysfunction in older women. There is a time lag effect when testosterone is administered, on genital arousal in women. Piedrola, G., Novo, E., Serrano-Gotarredona, J., de Teresa, M. L., Escobar-Jimenez, F., and Garcia-Robles, R. Relationship between insulin sensitivity and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in patients with ischemic heart disease. Schriock, E. D., Buffington, C. K., Givens, J. R., and Buster, J. E. Enhanced post-receptor insulin effects in women following dehydroepiandrosterone infusion. Foldes, J., Lakatos, P., Zsadanyi, J., and Horvath, C. Decreased serum IGF-I and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate may be risk factors for the development of reduced bone mass in postmenopausal women with endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism. Diamond, P., Cusan, L., Gomez, J. L., Belanger, A., and Labrie, F. Metabolic effects of 12-month percutaneous dehydroepiandrosterone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. Hall, G. M., Perry, L. A., and Spector, T. D. Depressed levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate in postmenopausal women with rheumatoid arthritis but no relation with axial bone density. At the tissue level, testosterone dissociates from albumin and quickly diffuses into the tissues. This binding plays an important role in regulating the transport, tissue delivery, bioactivity, and metabolism of testosterone. Only the free amount of testosterone can bind to an androgenic receptor, which means it has biological activity. Approximately 50% of testosterone is metabolized via conjugation into testosterone glucuronide and to a lesser extent testosterone sulfate by glucuronosyltransferases and sulfotransferases, respectively. Finally, increasing levels of testosterone through a negative feedback loop act on the hypothalamus and pituitary to inhibit the release of GnRH and FSH/LH, respectively. Like most hormones, testosterone is supplied to target tissues in the blood where much of it is transported bound to a specific plasma protein, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Testosterone is also synthesized in far smaller total quantities in women by the adrenal glands, thecal cells of the ovaries, and, during pregnancy, by the placenta. In the final and rate limiting step, the C17 keto group androstenedione is reduced by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase to yield testosterone. Like other steroid hormones, testosterone is derived from cholesterol (Figure 1). In contrast to testosterone, DHEA and DHEA sulfate have been found to act as high-affinity agonists of these receptors. Androgen receptors occur in many different vertebrate body system tissues, and both males and females respond similarly to similar levels. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements (HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the androgen effects. It has been theorized that brain masculinization is occurring since no significant changes have been identified in other parts of the body. The levels remain in a pubertal range for a few months, but usually reach the barely detectable levels of childhood by 4–7 months of age. Prenatal androgens apparently influence interests and engagement in gendered activities and have moderate effects on spatial abilities. This period affects the femininization or masculinization of the fetus and can be a better predictor of feminine or masculine behaviours such as sex typed behaviour than an adult's own levels. Examples include genital virilisation such as midline fusion, phallic urethra, scrotal thinning and rugation, and phallic enlargement; although the role of testosterone is far smaller than that of dihydrotestosterone. The relative potency of these effects can depend on various factors and is a topic of ongoing research. Testosterone can be described as having anabolic and androgenic (virilising) effects, though these categorical descriptions are somewhat arbitrary, as there is a great deal of mutual overlap between them.
Wolkowitz, O. M., Reus, V. I., Roberts, E., Manfredi, F., Chan, T., Ormiston, S., Johnson, R., Canick, J., Brizendine, L., Weingartner, H. Antidepressant and cognition-enhancing effects of DHEA in major depression. Kawano, H., Yasue, H., Kitagawa, A., Hirai, N., Yoshida, T., Soejima, H., Miyamoto, S., Nakano, M., Ogawa, H. Dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation improves endothelial function and insulin sensitivity in men. Hartkamp, A., Geenen, R., Godaert, G. L., Bijl, M., Bijlsma, J. W., Derksen, R. H. The effect of dehydroepiandrosterone on lumbar spine bone mineral density in patients with quiescent systemic lupus erythematosus. Kenny, A. M., Boxer, R. S., Kleppinger, A., Brindisi, J., Feinn, R., Burleson, J. A. Dehydroepiandrosterone combined with exercise improves muscle strength and physical function in frail older women. Virkki, L. M., Porola, P., Forsblad-d'Elia, H., Valtysdottir, S., Solovieva, S. A., Konttinen, Y. T. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) substitution treatment for severe fatigue in DHEA-deficient patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. have been undertaken on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior, and feelings, and testosterone. Nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. On the other hand, elevated testosterone in men may increase their generosity, primarily to attract a potential mate.|Reiter WJ, Schatzl G, Mark I, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone in the treatment of erectile dysfunction in patients with different organic etiologies. Antioxidant activity of dioscorea and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in older humans. Improvement in mood and fatigue after dehydroepiandrosterone replacement in Addison's disease in a randomized, double blind trial.|Higher pre-natal testosterone indicated by a low digit ratio as well as adult testosterone levels increased risk of fouls or aggression among male players in a soccer game. The masculinization of the brain is not just mediated by testosterone levels at the adult stage, but also testosterone exposure in the womb. The same research found fathers (outside competitive environments) had the lowest testosterone levels compared to other males. Higher testosterone levels in men reduce the risk of becoming or staying unemployed. If a father's testosterone levels decrease in response to hearing their baby cry, it is an indication of empathizing with the baby. For instance, fluctuation in testosterone levels when a child is in distress has been found to be indicative of fathering styles.|Testosterone levels play a major role in risk-taking during financial decisions. Men who produce more testosterone are more likely to engage in extramarital sex. Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship or married, and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce. However, the testosterone changes observed do not seem to be maintained as relationships develop over time. There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes. [testosterone order](https://pad.stuve.uni-ulm.de/s/v6_XhHfom) may prove to be an effective treatment in female sexual arousal disorders, and is available as a dermal patch.|Van Weering, H. G., Gutknecht, D. R., and Schats, R. Augmentation of ovarian response by dehydroepiandrosterone. Murialdo, G., Barreca, A., Nobili, F., Rollero, A., Timossi, G., Gianelli, M. V., Copello, F., Rodriguez, G., and Polleri, A. Relationships between cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate and insulin-like growth factor-I system in dementia. Sulcova, J., Hill, M., Hampl, R., Masek, Z., Novacek, A., Ceska, R., and Starka, L. Effects of transdermal application of DHEA on the levels of steroids, gonadotropins and lipids in men. Does dehydroepiandrosterone improve well-being? Lee, K. S., Oh, K. Y., and Kim, B. C. Effects of dehydroepiandrosterone on collagen and collagenase gene expression by skin fibroblasts in culture. Elekima, O. T., Mills, C. O., Ahmad, A., Skinner, G. R., Ramsden, D. B., Bown, J., Young, T. W., and Elias, E. Reduced hepatic content of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphotransferase in chronic liver diseases. Phase I study of dehydroepiandrosterone (EL-10) therapy in symptomatic HIV disease abstract. Shun YP, Shun LH, Feng YY, and et al. The effect of DHEA on body fat distribution and serum lipids in elderly overweight males. Influence of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on the thyroid hormone status of BHE/cdb rats. Young, J., Couzinet, B., Nahoul, K., Brailly, S., Chanson, P., Baulieu, E. E., and Schaison, G. Panhypopituitarism as a model to study the metabolism of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in humans. Uozumi, K., Uematsu, T., Otsuka, M., Nakano, S., Takatsuka, Y., Iwahashi, M., Hanada, S., and Arima, T. Serum dehydroepiandrosterone and DHEA-sulfate in patients with adult T- cell leukemia and human T-lymphotropic virus type I carriers. And Kahwash, Z. Sex-specific action of insulin to acutely increase the metabolic clearance rate of dehydroepiandrosterone in humans. Nestler, J. E., Beer, N. A., Jakubowicz, D. J., Colombo, C., and Beer, R. M. Effects of insulin reduction with benfluorex on serum dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate, and blood pressure in hypertensive middle-aged and elderly men. Romanutti, C., Bruttomesso, A. C., Castilla, V., Bisceglia, J. A., Galagovsky, L. R., and Wachsman, M. B. In vitro antiviral activity of dehydroepiandrosterone and its synthetic derivatives against vesicular stomatitis virus. Kodama, M., Oyama, A., and Takagi, H. Control of interstitial pneumonia by drip infusion of megadose vitamin C, dehydroepiandrosterone and cortisol. Kawano, H., Nagayoshi, Y., Soejima, H., Tanaka, Y., Yamabe, H., Kinoshita, Y., and Ogawa, H. Dehydroepiandrosterone levels vary according as heart failure condition in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Lee, M. S., Yang, J. W., Ko, Y. H., Han, C., Kim, S. H., Lee, M. S., Joe, S. H., and Jung, I. K. Effects of methylphenidate and bupropion on DHEA-S and cortisol plasma levels in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Olff, M., de Vries, G. J., Guzelcan, Y., Assies, J., and Gersons, B. P. Changes in cortisol and DHEA plasma levels after psychotherapy for PTSD. Stewart, [notes.medien.rwth-aachen.de](https://notes.medien.rwth-aachen.de/WgWssR6pSVq6NHH_eVs_4A/) P. M. Aging and fountain-of-youth hormones.. Gynecomastia produced by dehydroepiandrosterone excess.|And Mecocci, P. Decreased dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) concentrations in plasma of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Stanczyk, F. Z., Slater, C. C., Ramos, D. E., Azen, C., Cherala, G., Hakala, C., Abraham, G., and Roy, S. Pharmacokinetics of dehydroepiandrosterone and its metabolites after long-term oral dehydroepiandrosterone treatment in postmenopausal women. Barad, D., Brill, H., and Gleicher, N. Update on the use of dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation among women with diminished ovarian function. And Holloszy, J. O. DHEA enhances effects of weight training on muscle mass and strength in elderly women and men. Fukui, M., Kitagawa, Y., Nakamura, N., Kadono, M., Yoshida, M., Hirata, C., Wada, K., Hasegawa, G., and Yoshikawa, T. Serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate concentration and carotid atherosclerosis in men with type 2 diabetes. Dhatariya, K., Bigelow, M. L., and Nair, K. S. Effect of dehydroepiandrosterone replacement on insulin sensitivity and lipids in hypoadrenal women.|The 7-Keto group also lost a greater percentage of body fat compared to the placebo group—1.8% versus 0.57%. The subjects underwent testing for blood chemistry, body composition, blood pressure, and dietary analysis at baseline and at weeks four and eight. A study published in Current Therapeutic Research revealed just how effective 7-Keto is in inducing fat loss. Supplementation with 7-Keto has a dramatic effect on boosting levels of these thermogenic-enhancing enzymes.|Araneo, B. A., Shelby, J., Li, G. Z., Ku, W., and Daynes, R. A. Administration of dehydroepiandrosterone to burned mice preserves normal immunologic competence. De la, Torre B., Hedman, M., Nilsson, E., Olesen, O., and Thorner, A. Relationship between blood and joint tissue DHEAS levels in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Wisniewski, T. L., Hilton, C. W., Morse, E. V., and Svec, F. The relationship of serum DHEA-S and cortisol levels to measures of immune function in human immunodeficiency virus-related illness. Hautanen, A., Manttari, M., Manninen, V., Tenkanen, L., Huttunen, J. K., Frick, M. H., and Adlercreutz, H. Adrenal androgens and [buy testosterone cream](https://md.chaosdorf.de/s/yrC3Dz03sy) as coronary risk factors in the Helsinki Heart Study. Yang, J. Y., Schwartz, A., and Henderson, E. E. Inhibition of HIV-1 latency reactivation by dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and an analog of DHEA.} One study found that administering testosterone increased verbal aggression in some participants. One study proposed that natural selection may have caused men to be more sensitive to situations in which their status is challenged, and that testosterone is the key factor that causes these situations to spark into aggression. Testosterone may be a treatment for postmenopausal women as long as they are effectively estrogenized. There is no FDA-approved androgen preparation for the treatment of androgen insufficiency; however, it has been used as an off-label use to treat low libido and sexual dysfunction in older women. There is a time lag effect when testosterone is administered, on genital arousal in women. Piedrola, G., Novo, E., Serrano-Gotarredona, J., de Teresa, M. L., Escobar-Jimenez, F., and Garcia-Robles, R. Relationship between insulin sensitivity and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in patients with ischemic heart disease. Schriock, E. D., Buffington, C. K., Givens, J. R., and Buster, J. E. Enhanced post-receptor insulin effects in women following dehydroepiandrosterone infusion. Foldes, J., Lakatos, P., Zsadanyi, J., and Horvath, C. Decreased serum IGF-I and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate may be risk factors for the development of reduced bone mass in postmenopausal women with endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism. Diamond, P., Cusan, L., Gomez, J. L., Belanger, A., and Labrie, F. Metabolic effects of 12-month percutaneous dehydroepiandrosterone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. Hall, G. M., Perry, L. A., and Spector, T. D. Depressed levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate in postmenopausal women with rheumatoid arthritis but no relation with axial bone density. At the tissue level, testosterone dissociates from albumin and quickly diffuses into the tissues. This binding plays an important role in regulating the transport, tissue delivery, bioactivity, and metabolism of testosterone. Only the free amount of testosterone can bind to an androgenic receptor, which means it has biological activity. Approximately 50% of testosterone is metabolized via conjugation into testosterone glucuronide and to a lesser extent testosterone sulfate by glucuronosyltransferases and sulfotransferases, respectively. Finally, increasing levels of testosterone through a negative feedback loop act on the hypothalamus and pituitary to inhibit the release of GnRH and FSH/LH, respectively. Like most hormones, testosterone is supplied to target tissues in the blood where much of it is transported bound to a specific plasma protein, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). Testosterone is also synthesized in far smaller total quantities in women by the adrenal glands, thecal cells of the ovaries, and, during pregnancy, by the placenta. In the final and rate limiting step, the C17 keto group androstenedione is reduced by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase to yield testosterone. Like other steroid hormones, testosterone is derived from cholesterol (Figure 1). In contrast to testosterone, DHEA and DHEA sulfate have been found to act as high-affinity agonists of these receptors. Androgen receptors occur in many different vertebrate body system tissues, and both males and females respond similarly to similar levels. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements (HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the androgen effects. It has been theorized that brain masculinization is occurring since no significant changes have been identified in other parts of the body. The levels remain in a pubertal range for a few months, but usually reach the barely detectable levels of childhood by 4–7 months of age. Prenatal androgens apparently influence interests and engagement in gendered activities and have moderate effects on spatial abilities. This period affects the femininization or masculinization of the fetus and can be a better predictor of feminine or masculine behaviours such as sex typed behaviour than an adult's own levels. Examples include genital virilisation such as midline fusion, phallic urethra, scrotal thinning and rugation, and phallic enlargement; although the role of testosterone is far smaller than that of dihydrotestosterone. The relative potency of these effects can depend on various factors and is a topic of ongoing research. Testosterone can be described as having anabolic and androgenic (virilising) effects, though these categorical descriptions are somewhat arbitrary, as there is a great deal of mutual overlap between them.